Although it is clear that modern baseball developed in North America, the exact origin of the game is difficult to determine. Most scholars believe that baseball evolved from a variety of similar games that have been played for centuries. A popular legend claims that Abner Doubleday, who was a Union officer during the American Civil War (1861-1865), invented baseball in Cooperstown, New York, in 1839. But there is little support for this story.
There is evidence that people played games involving a stick and a ball since the early days of civilization. Ancient cultures in Persia, Egypt, and Greece played stick-and-ball games for recreation and as part of certain ceremonies. Games of this type had spread throughout Europe by the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century) and became popular in a variety of forms. Europeans brought stick-and-ball games to the American colonies as early as the 1600s. Until the late 1700s, however, they were widely considered children's games.
By the early 1800s, a variety of stick-and-ball games had become popular in North America. Most of these games originated in England. Many people in northeastern cities such as Boston, New York, and Philadelphia played cricket, a traditional game of English aristocrats. But an English game called rounders, which was eventually played in rural and urban communities throughout North America, most closely resembled modern baseball.
Rounders called for a batter to strike a ball and run around bases without being put out. Balls that were caught on the fly, or in some cases after one bounce, were commonly outs. Rounders also involved the practice of plugging, soaking, or stinging, in which fielders could put runners out by throwing the ball at them as they ran between bases. The rules of rounders varied widely from place to place, and people used various names to describe it, including town ball, one o' cat, and base ball (which was eventually shortened to baseball).
Early forms of baseball were played in cities such as New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and Rochester as well as in many rural towns and villages. On June 4, 1838, a group of residents gathered in Beachville, Ontario, to play a local version of baseball with five bases, a game believed to be the first ever played in Canada. People in some communities formed clubs especially to play the game. But elements of rounders, such as plugging the runner, remained common, and baseball lacked official rules or formal organization.
The most important early organized baseball club was formed in 1845 by a group of young men in New York City. This group, led by Alexander Cartwright and later by Dr. Daniel L. Adams, called their club the Knickerbocker Base Ball Club. The Knickerbockers developed a set of 20 rules-14 governing play and 6 relating to administration-that became the foundation of modern baseball. These rules, first published in 1845, defined the playing field with a home plate and three additional bases set apart at specific distances. They also abolished plugging and replaced it with the practice of tagging runners or forcing them out at a base.
The Knickerbockers also established foul lines, which became one of the most significant developments in baseball. In previous versions of the game, the ball could be struck in any direction. By drawing foul lines from home plate, the Knickerbockers added focus to the game. Perhaps more significantly, they created an area close to the action where spectators could gather and watch the game without interfering.
Although there were few baseball spectators in the early days of the Knickerbockers, the creation of foul territory established an area where onlookers might safely gather to watch the game. Eventually, as the Knickerbockers' style of play became popular, baseball games drew increasing public attention.
On June 19, 1846, the Knickerbockers played in what is widely considered the first modern baseball game. They met another organized baseball team called the New York Club in what is now Hoboken, New Jersey, and played a complete game according to the Knickerbocker rules. The Knickerbockers lost, 23-1.
The Knickerbocker style of play spread rapidly during the 1850s, when baseball clubs formed throughout New York City and adopted the new rules. By the late 1850s the game's popularity had spread beyond the city, and it became known as the New York Game. By the mid-1850s crowds of several thousand were not uncommon at baseball games in the New York City area.
The New York Game spread more rapidly during the Civil War as Union soldiers introduced the game in places where they traveled. By the end of the war in 1865, the game had become the most popular variety of baseball throughout the country. Soon after, the name New York Game disappeared-it became simply baseball.
Professional Baseball
As baseball's popularity grew, many people began to see its potential for financial profit. By the 1850s landowners were regularly maintaining baseball parks to rent to baseball clubs. Baseball teams customarily collected donations from fans to cover costs. The first fully enclosed baseball park, the Union Grounds in Brooklyn, was completed in 1862. This style of park soon became popular because owners could sell food and drink to spectators without competition from street vendors. The National Association of Base Ball Players (NABBP), an organization formed in 1858, prohibited members from taking payment for playing baseball. During the early 1860s ballpark owners earned large profits while the amateur ball players provided free entertainment. Pressure from players eventually forced the NABBP to change its policy in 1868 and allow players to accept money. This ruling marked the birth of professional baseball.
The first professional baseball team, the Cincinnati Red Stockings, began play in 1869. They traveled the country that year, playing before thousands of fans and winning 60 games without a loss. Soon baseball's promoters began forming professional baseball clubs in cities across the Northeastern and Midwestern United States. By 1870 professional players outnumbered amateurs in the NABBP and the remaining amateurs withdrew. In 1871 the organization became the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players.
The new National Association represented players from ten clubs. In effect, these clubs made up the first professional baseball league. They introduced the practice of league competition and concluded their regular season with a pennant race and championship. However, the National Association suffered from poor management and by 1876 it had folded completely.
The Major Leagues
In 1876 representatives of eight baseball clubs, led by Chicago White Stockings officials William Hulbert and Albert Spalding, sought to replace the National Association with a more structured organization. They created the National League of Professional Base Ball Clubs, known as the National League, which consisted of teams from Boston, Massachusetts; Chicago, Illinois; Cincinnati, Ohio; Hartford, Connecticut; Louisville, Kentucky; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; New York City; and St. Louis, Missouri. They adopted a constitution that regulated club activities, required players to honor their contracts, and banned gambling completely.
A rival league, the American Association, was founded in 1882. American Association clubs charged lower admission prices and, unlike National League teams, played on Sundays and allowed the sale of liquor. Tension between the two leagues increased as they competed for the best players. In 1883 the leagues formed an agreement that established exhibition games between the leagues' best teams following the regular season. In addition, the American Association agreed to adopt the National League's reserve clause, which required players to obtain permission from their club's owner before joining another club.
Attendance at baseball games grew during the late 1880s, as clubs built larger ballparks and the quality of play improved. The leagues added new rules, which included permitting the overhand pitch. Previously, pitchers were required to use an underhand or sidearm delivery. The use of baseball gloves gained general acceptance and new standards for the design of balls and bats were adopted. John Montgomery Ward, captain of the New York Giants, founded the first players' union, the Brotherhood of Professional Base Ball Players, in 1885.
The American Association folded after the 1891 season and its four best teams joined the National League, which remained the only major league through the end of the 1800s. Public interest in baseball decreased during this period, and many clubs experienced financial difficulty. Baseball entered a new era in 1901, however, when the American League opened its first season. It was founded by Ban Johnson, president of the Western League, a successful minor league organization that he renamed the American League. In 1903 the National League agreed to recognize the American League, and championship teams from each league met in the first World Series.
Growth and Prosperity
Major league baseball enjoyed widespread popularity during the early 1900s. Attendance at games swelled, and the World Series became one of the leading annual events in sports. Outstanding players such as Cy Young, Christy Mathewson, and Ty Cobb emerged as national stars. Owners responded to the prosperity by building larger, more modern ballparks.
Baseball's success also brought difficulties. Many players argued that their salaries were too low, and the players' union tried unsuccessfully to change the reserve clause and other major league policies. But baseball faced its greatest challenge following the 1919 World Series, in which the Cincinnati Reds defeated the Chicago White Sox. The following year, seven Chicago players were banned from baseball for intentionally losing the series in exchange for bribes from professional gamblers. An eighth Chicago player was banned because he knew of the plan but did not report it. This scandal severely damaged baseball's public image.
Baseball's reputation recovered, however, under the leadership of its first commissioner, a federal judge named Kenesaw Mountain Landis. Several other factors also contributed to baseball's renewed popularity during the 1920s. A ban on trick pitches such as spitballs and shineballs and the development of the more lively cork-centered ball led to an increase in home-run hitting. Babe Ruth, initially a star pitcher for the Boston Red Sox, joined the New York Yankees in 1920 and became one of the greatest home-run hitters of all time. Many hitters imitated Ruth's style, and baseball developed into a higher scoring and-to many fans-more exciting game.
The growth of baseball continued into the 1930s, when radio broadcasts of games became common. The first major league night games were also held during the 1930s, enabling fans to attend games after work. In 1939 the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum was opened in Cooperstown, New York, to display baseball memorabilia and honor the game's greatest players.
The Negro Leagues
From the mid-1880s until the mid-1940s, black players were not allowed to compete in the major leagues. Instead, they joined teams made up entirely of black players, and many of these teams formed leagues that were known collectively as the Negro Leagues. One of the best known was the Negro National League, which was formed in 1920. Another, the Eastern Colored League, formed in 1923, and the champions of the two leagues met in a World Series every year from 1924 to 1927.
The Great Depression disrupted play in the Negro Leagues during the early 1930s. A new Negro National League formed in 1933 and was joined by the Negro American League in 1937. These leagues held an annual World Series until 1948. Outstanding players in the Negro Leagues included catcher Josh Gibson; pitcher Satchel Paige; and outfielder James Bell, who used the nickname "Cool Papa." The integration of the major leagues, which began in 1947, drew the best black players from the Negro Leagues. Declining attendance spelled the end of the Negro Leagues in the early 1950s.
The Impact of World War II
Baseball suffered during World War II (1939-1945), as hundreds of major league players were called to military service. Teams and fans also endured travel restrictions and limits on supplies. To overcome the shortage of players, some club owners began to recruit players from Latin American countries. More than 40 players from these countries joined the major leagues during the war.
The effects of World War II also contributed to an increased interest in women's baseball. In 1943 Chicago Cubs owner Philip Wrigley founded the All American Girls Professional Baseball League, which featured teams from Midwestern cities. The league lasted until 1954.
After the war, baseball began to grow again. Veteran stars such as Bob Feller, Joe DiMaggio, Hank Greenberg, Ted Williams, and Stan Musial returned from military service to the major leagues. Night baseball games resumed, and attendance at games climbed. In 1946 viewers in Boston observed the first television broadcast of a major league game.
The Integration of the Major Leagues
Jackie Robinson, the first black player in the modern major leagues, made his debut as a Brooklyn Dodger on April 15, 1947, bringing an end to baseball's exclusion of blacks. In his first year, Robinson led the Dodgers to the National League pennant and was named rookie of the year. Although Robinson was often confronted with bigotry from the stands and on the field, his outstanding performance and composure on the field helped overcome racial prejudice.
Robinson's success as a player opened the door for other blacks to play professional baseball on previously all-white teams, but not all teams signed black players immediately. By 1950, only 5 of the 16 major league teams had integrated-the Dodgers, Cleveland Indians, St. Louis Browns, New York Giants, and Boston Braves. By 1953, blacks had played on 8 of the 16 teams. Not until 1959, when the Boston Red Sox acquired Pumpsie Green, had every major league team signed a black player.
Bill Veeck, president of the Cleveland Indians, was one major league executive who recognized the competitive advantage black stars brought to baseball teams. Noting that Robinson's presence on the Brooklyn roster made the Dodgers a pennant contender and improved their attendance figures, Veeck signed a black baseball star to play for the Indians. On July 5, 1947, Larry Doby joined Cleveland and played his first major league game as a first baseman against the Chicago White Sox.
Few people welcomed Doby to the team, and two of his teammates refused to shake his hand. Eddie Robinson, the Indians' regular first baseman, feared losing his job and refused to loan Doby his first baseman's glove; the Indians borrowed a mitt from the Chicago White Sox for Doby. Fans shouted racial insults at Doby from the stands. Taunts and jeers also came from rival players on the field. When the Indians traveled, Doby had to stay in a separate hotel that catered to blacks. Doby found life in the major leagues isolated and lonely, and his experience was typical of what many black players encountered through the 1950s. Not until the United States Congress passed civil rights legislation in 1964 were blacks guaranteed the right to stay in the same hotels and eat meals in the same restaurants as their white teammates.
Besides Robinson and Doby, other players who became the first blacks on major league teams were Henry Thompson (St. Louis Browns, July 7, 1947), Monte Irvin and Henry Thompson (New York Giants, July 8, 1949), Sam Jethroe (Boston Braves, April 18, 1950), Minnie Minoso (Chicago White Sox, May 1, 1951), Bob Trice (Philadelphia Athletics, September 13, 1953), Ernie Banks (Chicago Cubs, September 17, 1953), Curt Roberts (Pittsburgh Pirates, April 13, 1954), Tom Alston (St. Louis Cardinals, April 13, 1954), Elston Howard (New York Yankees, April 14, 1954), Nino Escalera (Cincinnati Reds, April 17, 1954), Carlos Paula (Washington Senators, September 6, 1954), John Kennedy (Philadelphia Phillies, April 22, 1957), Ozzie Virgil (Detroit Tigers, June 6, 1958), and Pumpsie Green (Boston Red Sox, July 21, 1959).